Regulated NOx emission limits in leading markets have been progressively tightened, but current diesel vehicles emit far more NOx under real-world operating conditions than during laboratory certification testing10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20. Specifications of the vehicles tested. PDF Lombardy Region (Italy) emission inventory: methodologies and results Zheng et al. (C) Distribution of lambda (air-fuel equivalence ratio) during the RDE-compliant test. Environ. Environ. Sci. Eng. Sci. Atmos. O'Driscoll, R., Stettler, M. E. J., Molden, N., Oxley, T., and ApSimon, H. M. (2018). The frequency in the y-axis of Figure 9 is defined as the cumulative time that the instantaneous (in 1 Hz) EGR value falls within the respective bin over the total duration of the test. Co-benefits of mitigating global greenhouse gas emissions for future air quality and human health. Radiat. Gaseous Emissions - DieselNet Technol. Although the EPA's 2010 emissions standard for heavy-duty engines went a long way toward reducing NO x on NOx emissions is less significant and more difficult to predict. Figure 4. Figure 9. This conclusion is based on 160 PEMS tests from engines that have been certified to emit 0.2 grams of NOx per brake horsepower-hour (g/bhp-hr). The impact of road grade on carbon dioxide (CO2) emission of a passenger vehicle in real-world driving. Figure 5. At this point, a discrimination between vehicle and engine dynamics should be made. Although very recent tests show that modern diesel cars (Euro 6d-temp, still with a limited market share) can emit very low quantities of NOx (ADAC, 2019), a number of studies have highlighted the elevated emissions of existing Euro 6 diesel-powered light-duty vehicles. 174, 112121. Further, the CNG consisted of methane (CH4) at 98% by vol., with the remaining 2% including ethane (C2H6), nitrogen, and traces of heavier hydrocarbons (up to butane) and carbon dioxide. On the chassis dynamometer, the WLTC was run under cold and hot starting conditions, applying the real-world road load of the vehicle, as determined through a coast-down test in a suitable test track. ISSN 1476-4687 (online) Diesel generator - Energy Education Figure 7. Table 4. However, when the Dynamic driving test is considered, CO2 emissions are more than doubled owing to the abrupt accelerations and uphill driving. Crit. AK supported the experimental activity and reviewed the paper. EEAGreenhouse Gas - Data Viewer. (2014) and Gallus et al. However, the aggressive driver behavior and the uphill roads of the Dynamic driving schedule resulted in approximately double the CO2 emissions for both cars. Atmos. Sci. Available online at: https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/international/paris_protocol/transport_en. Proc. Damages and expected deaths due to excess NOx emissions from 2009 to 2015 Volkswagen diesel vehicles. The emissions from these generators have a significant impact on the quality of the air in the surrounding areas. The potential of natural gas to reduce CO2 emissions was also highlighted. https://www.arb.ca.gov/newsrel/arb_iuc_2015_09_25_final_signed_letter.pdf (accessed 19 December 2016) (CARB, 2014), Bey, I. et al. Appl. Lett. Instantaneous recordings of vehicle velocity, altitude, and locational coordinates were taken with a GPS device, while ambient conditions (pressure, temperature, and humidity) were measured with suitable sensors. The investigation is done through engine performance, combustion characteristics, and emissions characteristics study and to determine the best ratio of the used n . http://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ICCT_future-vehicle-testing_20151123.pdf (International Council on Clean Transportation, 2015), Forouzanfar, M. H. et al. The aggressive driver behavior and the uphill roads in the Dynamic driving schedule resulted in a near-doubling of CO2 emissions for both cars. d, Light commercial vehicles in EU-28. Technol. (Data are taken from refs 73, 74, 36, 38 and 37.) Citation numbers are available from Dimensions, National Research Council Canada (NRC), Canada, CMT-Thermal Motors, Polytechnic University of Valencia, Spain. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.144, Tsokolis, D., Tsiakmakis, S., Dimaratos, A., Fontaras, G., Pistikopoulos, P., Ciuffo, B., et al. It is also interesting to observe the opposite trend in NOx emissions between the WLTC and RDE-compliant tests under the different starting conditions. Nitrogen oxide (NOx) and particulate matter are produced by diesel generators. The large CO2 discrepancies observed between real-world and TA values, reaching 40% in 2017 (Tietge et al., 2019), led to the development of the Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Cycle and Procedure (WLTC and WLTP, respectively), introduced into the certification process of new vehicles since September 2017 (Marotta et al., 2015; Tutuianu et al., 2015). The detailed specifications of the two vehicles tested in this study are presented in Table 1. Environmental Health Analytics LLC, Washington, DC, USA, International Council on Clean Transportation, Washington, DC, USA, Joshua Miller,Ray Minjares,Li Du&Vicente Franco, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, USA, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of York, York, UK, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria, You can also search for this author in 10, 114005 (2015), Holland, S. P., Mansur, E. T., Muller, N. Z. Kwon, S., Park, Y., Park, J., Kim, J., Choi, K.-H., and Cha, J.-S. (2017). This paper finds that across 11 markets, representing about 80 per cent of global diesel vehicle sales, nitrogen oxide emissions exceed certification limits for one-third of on-road heavy-duty vehicles and for over half of light-duty vehicles. Ultimately, an examination of the 1. between 1.35 - 1.45. Diesel vehicles produce about 20 per cent of global nitrogen oxide emissions and emit more under real-world operating conditions than during laboratory certification testing. Res. A study on the CO2 and NOx emissions performance of Euro 6 diesel vehicles under various chassis dynamometer and on-road conditions including latest regulatory provisions. On the other hand, the increased NOx emissions of a bi-fuel engine when running on CNG (Rai et al., 2017), as well as the refueling infrastructure and logistics, make up the challenges for the widespread use of natural gas in light-duty vehicles (Van der Slot et al., 2016). Table 2. Actually, the only exception where Vehicle 2 exceeds the relevant limit is when running on CNG under the Dynamic driving test. Energy Rev. Diesel fuel is just marginally cheaper than gas in Italy these days (around euro 1.25 for gas, 1.15 for diesel -- per liter -- not gallon!!). Dimaratos, A. M. (2017). Weber, C., Kramer, U., Friedfeldt, R., Ruhland, H., and Krmer, F. (2018). Reasons for banning the further sale of fossil fuel vehicles include: reducing health risks from pollution particulates, notably diesel PM10s, and other emissions, notably nitrogen oxides; meeting national greenhouse gas, such as CO 2, targets under international agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement; or energy independence.The intent to ban vehicles powered by fossil . J. Geophys. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Emissions of nitrogen oxides (NO x ) from heavy-duty diesel engines are a significant contributor to ambient air quality issues and ozone pollution in many areas of the United States. Google Scholar, Lelieveld, J., Evans, J. S., Fnais, M., Giannadaki, D. & Pozzer, A. Atmos. Find out the differences between vehicle greenhouse gas emissions and smog emissions. 5:62. doi: 10.3389/fmech.2019.00062. However, the conversion of NOx in the TWC within this window is only partial, while the competitive reactions of CO and NO oxidation pose further limitations to the successful abatement of nitrogen oxide emissions (DieselNet, 2017; Ferri et al., 2018). By submitting a comment you agree to abide by our Terms and Community Guidelines. In 2015, the 'excess' diesel-related nitrogen oxide emissions were associated with around 38,000 deaths related to fine particulate matter and ozone worldwide, including roughly 10 per cent of all ozone-related deaths in the European Union member states. Appl. Estimates baseline emissions, reduced emissions, cost effectiveness for NOx, PM 2.5, HC, CO and CO 2, and PM-related health benefits. For example, Lujn et al. Environ. Indeed (slightly), higher brake thermal efficiency has been reported for bi-fuel engine when operating with CNG (Chen et al., 2018). . Visualization of tailpipe NOx emissions of Vehicle 2 on the engine map. European Commission (2017). Past research has shown that a faster engine acceleration or load increase (representing driver aggressiveness) can lead to elevated NOx (and soot) emission peaks (Hagena et al., 2006; Dimaratos, 2017). Transp. Harmful gases from marine diesel engines mainly consist of NOx, SOx and particulate matter (PM) (Jiang et al., 2019).It is noted that NOx is listed as the world's top 10 environmental pollution, while SOx results in serious environmental degradation (Kampa and Castanas, 2008; Corbett et al., 2007).According to the investigation of the EU, marine engine emissions contributed to 16.5% of . (PDF 904 kb), Anenberg, S., Miller, J., Minjares, R. et al. Therm. Renew. Technol. & Kappanna, H. Final Report: In-Use Emissions Testing of Light-Duty Diesel Vehicles in the United States. Controversy on NOx emission. Driving and Engine Cycles. United States Environmental Protection Agency, You may need a PDF reader to view some of the files on this page. a, HDV in EU-28. Turbocharger response during diesel engine transient operation and effect on soot emissions, in Turbochargers and Turbocharging: Advancements, Applications and Research, ed E. G. Giakoumis (New York, NY: Nova Science Publishers), 193220. Technol. Figure 4B presents the aggregated NOx emissions for both cars under the complete range of driving conditions. The reason behind this observation is the combined effect of EGR and LNT regeneration. Sustain. Appl. Res. This effect is further influenced by the different flame propagation speeds of CNG and gasoline, depending on pressure, temperature, and the airfuel equivalence ratio of the mixture (Heywood, 1988; Kratzsch and Gnther, 2013; Van Basshuysen, 2015; Chen et al., 2018). will lead you to understand these emissions and their causes. Environ. Technol. On the other hand, the Dynamic driving route (Figure 3B) included roads with high inclination found in the northeastern suburbs of the city. These data highlight in the most explicit way the significance of investigating and effectively limiting road transport emissions. Sustain. Catal. CAS In the former test set, two driving routes were followed, one complying with Real Driving Emissions (RDE) regulation and another characterized by more dynamic driving. Histograms (AC) and approximate distributions (D) during each test cycle. did not result in a significant difference on the aggregated fuel consumption of the specific vehicle. A 2020 analysis by Argonne National Laboratory found that using corn-based ethanol in place of gasoline reduces life cycle GHG emissions on average by 40%. doi: 10.1016/j.trpro.2017.05.333, Fraidl, G., Kapus, P., and Vidmar, K. (2016). Part D. Transp. It was not possible to generate similar diagrams for the Dynamic driving schedule owing to the low repeatability of the test (the abrupt accelerations cannot be reproduced with high accuracy in both fuel modes) and the low density of operating points in the high speed-low/medium load area (Figure 6). In the gasoline mode, the differences between the WLTC (Figure 10A) and the RDE-compliant route (Figure 10B) are negligible, in agreement with the aggregated results of Figure 4B. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. NGVA Europe (2016). Environ. Results are shown for maize, wheat and soy globally and in major producing regions (central estimate and uncertainty bars showing range using two exposure metrics). http://www.theicct.org/us-tier-3-vehicle-emissions-and-fuel-quality-standards-final-rule (accessed 14 January 2017) (International Council on Clean Transportation, 2014), California Air Resources Board (CARB). Res. The difference between reported and real-world CO2 emissions: how much improvement can be expected by WLTP introduction? The influence of ozone precursor emissions from four world regions on tropospheric composition and radiative climate forcing. In the present experimental campaign, natural gas operation results in up to three times the NOx emissions as compared to gasoline. The former, va_95%, is the 95th percentile of the data series (in 1 Hz) created after ranking in ascending order the product of vehicle speed per positive acceleration >0.1 m/s2 (European Commission, 2016). Meckenheim: IAV. A diesel vehicle equipped with a common-rail engine, LNT, and DPF and a bi-fuel gasoline/CNG vehicle equipped with TWC were tested. ACEA (2018). PubMed Central Total Environ. Data processing and emissions calculations were carried out using tools developed in house. Schematic layout of the complete test setup. Extended Data Figure 2 Radiative forcing from change in NO, Extended Data Figure 3 Annual on-road diesel vehicle NO. In a and b, horizontal lines indicate distance-based emission factors based on engine emission limits. In CNG mode, the NOx peak is higher and the duration of elevated emissions is longer than in the gasoline case. Int. Higher engine speeds and loads are experienced, resulting from aggressive driver behavior characterized by abrupt accelerations and from the higher road grades included in the Dynamic driving test (Table 3; Figures 2, 3). Impact of driving style and road grade on gaseous exhaust emissions of passenger vehicles measured by a Portable Emission Measurement System (PEMS). Finally, it was found that the overall cycle dynamics are not sufficient for the complete assessment of transient emissions, and the instantaneous engine, and aftertreatment behavior can reveal additional details. 50, 11111117 (2016), Oldenkamp, R., van Zelm, R. & Huijbregts, M. A. J. Gaseous emissions from light-duty vehicles: moving from NEDC to the new WLTP test procedure. Engine combustion and emission fuelled with natural gas: a review. Environ. For both vehicles, the WLTC appears to be a good approximation of the real-world conditions, as it covers a large portion of the engine operating range of the RDE-compliant route. Int. Natural gas constitutes a very good example, as it offers a direct CO2 benefit compared to gasoline and diesel (Chen et al., 2018). Real-world emissions from modern heavy-duty diesel, natural gas, and hybrid diesel trucks operating along major California freight corridors. 2. 30, 22192226. and R.M. EEA (2018a). Using ULSD fuel and advanced exhaust emission control systems can reduce vehicle particulate emissions by up to 90% and emissions of nitrogen compounds (NOx) by 25% to 50%. NOx sensors monitor the level of nitrogen oxide emitted by a diesel vehicle to ensure compliance with emissions regulations. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.est.6b03218 (2017), Quiros, D. et al. In addition, Figure 5 presents the contribution of the cold-start period, which is defined as the time for the engine coolant to reach 70C or as the 300 first seconds after the cold start, whichever is achieved first, according to the latest provisions of the RDE regulation (European Commission, 2018b). (B) Vehicle 2 - Bi-fuel car. Global estimates of fine particulate matter using a combined geophysical-statistical method with information from satellites, models, and monitors. 42, 16511656 (2008), Thompson, G., Carder, D., Besch, M., Thiruvengadam, A. 6 Articles, This article is part of the Research Topic, https://www.acea.be/statistics/tag/category/share-of-diesel-in-new-passenger-cars, https://www.adac.de/rund-ums-fahrzeug/abgas-diesel-fahrverbote/abgasnorm/test-euro-6d-temp/, https://www.dieselnet.com/tech/catalyst_methane_three-way.php, https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/data/data-viewers/greenhouse-gases-viewer, https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/international/paris_protocol/transport_en, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1560514030186&uri=COM:2019:208:FIN, https://www.jato.com/co2-emissions-rise-to-highest-average-since-2014-as-the-shift-from-diesel-to-gasoline-continues, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY), Laboratory of Applied Thermodynamics, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece. PDF Current state of NOx emissions from in-use heavy-duty diesel vehicles On-road and laboratory emissions of NO, NO2, NH3, N2O and CH4 from late-model EU light utility vehicles: comparison of diesel and CNG. See EPAs About PDF page to learn more. Vehicle speed, cumulative distance, and altitude for the WLTC, the RDE-compliant, and the Dynamic driving tests. The latter parameter, RPA, is defined as the integral of vehicle speed multiplied by the time interval (equal to 1 s) and the positive acceleration, divided by the total distance traveled during the test. A review of NOx and SOx emission reduction technologies for marine Figure 10. Using cellulosic ethanol provides an even greater benefit. ICCT (2017). For the diesel car, real-world NOx emissions were significantly higher than the Euro 6 and temporarily permitted on-road levels. Diesel Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) Sensors | Standard Diesel Vehicle 1 is powered by a common-rail diesel engine, integrating a high-pressure EGR (Exhaust Gas Recirculation) circuit for engine-out NOx emission control. J. Quant. Google Scholar, United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). Diesel cars emit 10 times more toxic pollution than trucks and buses Vojtek-Lom, M., Bernek, V., Klr, V., Jindra, P., Pechout, M., and Voek, T. (2018). Comparative evaluation of eight legislated driving schedules in terms of cycle metrics and emissions from a diesel-powered turbocharged van. This is the area of component protection against thermal stress, with various methods applied for controlling the maximum combustion (and subsequently, exhaust gas) temperatures, such as mixture enrichment (with the associated extra fuel consumption), EGR (used also to reduce throttling losses), and water injection (Fraidl et al., 2016). Compared to gasoline, CNG has a significantly higher octane number, which translates into superior knocking stability, enabling an advance in spark timing, leading to an increase in engine efficiency. In road cars, it typically produces from 150 hp and 221 lb-ft of torque . In any case, the difference between those two tests is not pronounced, and the engine is not driven above 2,500 and 3,000 rpm in Vehicles 1 and 2, respectively. (2016). While the hot WLTC produces higher NOx emissions than the cold, the hot RDE-compliant test lies below its cold counterpart. Besides, in the 4th package of the RDE regulations, in force since November 2018, the determination of average emission values (in g/km) is accomplished in a similar manner, while the moving average window method is used only for the verification of the overall trip validity (European Commission, 2018b). Environ. BMW M57 Engine. (2018). B., Wu, Y. N., Cao, X. Y. HHDT, heavy heavy-duty trucks; MHDT, medium heavy-duty trucks. Chem. The application of realistic road load in the WLTC limited its difference from the RDE-compliant route in terms of CO2 emissions. 63, 3748. The aim is to provide, for both vehicles, further insight into NOx emissions during the WLTC and on-road driving. The 10 Most Reliable Diesel Engines Ever Built - SlashGear How Much NOx Does A Diesel Produce? - UtilitySmarts Experimental thermal analysis of cylinder block and head of a bi-fuel turbocharged engine. Evaluating the climate and air quality impacts of short-lived pollutants. For NOx emissions, the final CF, effective from January 2021, is set to 1.43, with a temporary value equal to 2.1 applied from September 2019 (European Commission, 2017, 2019; ICCT, 2017). wrote the paper with help from all authors. Mech. Procedia 25, 39333943. This applies for the TWC, DOC, and SCR, as well as for the LNT. Sci. The weighted average EGR rate is 15%. Nature 545, 467471 (2017). It is only under the Dynamic driving conditions with CNG that the respective permitted levels are exceeded; NOx emissions are 2.5 times the Euro 6 limit and 20% higher than the real-world temporary limit (corresponding to CF = 2.1). The first part of the results section presents and analyzes the aggregated emission levels, expressed in g/km. Engine operating points under different driving conditions for the two vehicles tested. Susan C. Anenberg and Joshua Miller: These authors contributed equally to this work. Atmos. A significant contribution toward the reduction of CO2 emissions can come from vehicles powered by alternative fuels. Nano Research Both parameters practically express, in different ways, the frequency and intensity of vehicle accelerations. Technol. http://publications.tno.nl/publication/34620020/ksRDF3/TNO-2016-R10304.pdf (TNO, 2016), Ntziachristos, L., Papadimitriou, G., Ligterink, N. & Hausberger, S. Implications of diesel emissions control failures to emission factors and road transport NOx evolution. Figure 8. 8, 659740 (Cambridge Univ. PDF Biodiesel carbon intensity, - International Council on Clean Transportation An assessment of the real-world driving gaseous emissions from a Euro 6 light-duty diesel vehicle using a portable emissions measurement system (PEMS). Environ. Higher combustion temperatures, combined with TWC operation, are the main reason behind this trend. Environ. The contribution of outdoor air pollution sources to premature mortality on a global scale. CAS (2016). Nitrogen Oxides (<i>NO_x</i>) Emission from Fuels Emission of Nitrogen Oxides - NOx - with combustion of fuels like oil, coal, propane and more. PDF 1.3 Fuel Oil Combustion - US EPA Sci. 167, 523541. Jiangsu Starlight Electricity Equipments Co.,Ltd. Emissions of nitrogen oxides and particulates of diesel vehicles. Average real-world driving probably lies between the RDE-compliant and Dynamic driving tests, with the latter being considered the most extreme case. The objective of this study is the assessment of the real-world environmental performance, and its comparison with laboratory measurements, of two Euro 6 passenger cars. 30, 2021. Concerning the NOx emissions of the diesel car, the real-world results were significantly higher than the respective WLTC levels. It is interesting to notice in Figure 8 the different NOx emissions at engine operating points covered by all three testing schedules. The first concerns the increase in NOx emissions when it runs on CNG as compared to gasoline operation. Google Scholar, Miller, J. Vehicle 2 is equipped with an OEM manufactured bi-fuel spark-ignition engine capable of running on either gasoline (direct injectionGDI) or compressed natural gas (CNG, port fuel injectionPFI). Publications: http://publications.tno.nl/publication/34616868/a1Ug1a/TNO-2015-R10702.pdf (accessed 1 October 2016) (2015), Kadijk, G. et al. Re: Diesel Price in Milan, Italy. Common causes of failure include soot buildup on the sensor, ECU water intrusion and/or damage to the cable, which will cause the check engine light . Concerning the NO x emissions of the diesel car, the real-world results were significantly higher than the respective WLTC levels. NOx emissions from diesel light duty vehicle tested under NEDC and real-word driving conditions. On the other hand, the bi-fuel car exhibited very low NO x emissions with both fuels. RDE compliant (Figures 9B,D): The EGR rate is below 65% for 95% of the test time. Atmos. In order to ensure direct comparability between on-road and laboratory measurements, the same equipment was used in all the tests. CAS Heavy-Duty Vehicle Emissions Calculator - Argonne National Laboratory Environ. ULSD fuel helps reduce emissions in older engines as well. http://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/Brazil%20P-7%20Briefing%20Paper%20Final_revised.pdf (accessed 14 September 2016) (ICCT, 2016), Muncrief, R. Video of the Day Step 2 Know how much fuel your generator consumes. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The comparison between the fuels reveals that the main source of NOx emissions is cold start, as highlighted in Figure 11A. Environ. Further to the aggregated results, the instantaneous NOx emissions were analyzed in order to gain further insight into the behavior of the vehicles under varying driving conditions. A weaker correlation is found in the case of the diesel car (Vehicle 1), caused by the discordance between the WLTC and the RDE-compliant test. Sci. Light Duty Vehicle Emissions | US EPA 45, 70537063 (2011), Chen, Y. C. & Borken-Kleefeld, J. NOx emissions from diesel passenger cars worsen with age. Appl. Atmos. Understanding the benefits of biodiesel requires us to compare its life cycle emissions to those of petroleum . Passing on to the bi-fuel car (Vehicle 2), this presents very low NOx emissions independently of the driving conditions and the fuel used, being compliant with the Euro 6 limit in most cases (sub-figure in Figure 4B). Among the air pollutants gasoline and diesel engines emit are oxides of nitrogenNO and NO2, generically abbreviated as NOx. NOx emission standards for light duty vehicles in 2025 are a 98% . This finding is confirmed by past and recent research and holds independently of the testing conditionseither steady-state operation, transient cycles, or on-road driving (Jahirul et al., 2010; Rai et al., 2017; Chen et al., 2018). Consult your EPA Regional Office or SIP and Conformity guidance documents. The current study aims to investigate the addition of three different ratios of n-pentane of 5 ml, 10 ml, and 15 ml per liter of Scenedesmus obliquus algae biodiesel/diesel blend. 86, 121. Sci. New evidence from on-road tests of buses in China. Since the road load applied in the chassis dynamometer tests corresponds to the real load (note that this was determined with a coast-down test), this is an indication that the additional parameters influencing CO2 emissions (such as gear shifting strategy, driving dynamics, road grade, etc.) A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in 21 regions, 1990-2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Air Quality in Europe 2018 Report. Table: Light-Duty Vehicle Sales by Technology Type. Environ. More dynamic and frequent engine transients during the on-road test contribute to the observed differences from the laboratory conditions. Cannot provide estimates for Category 3 marine engines. Environ. Nabi et al. Such a representation is very useful for highlighting the instantaneous dynamic behavior of the powertrain and aftertreatment systems. An estimate of the global burden of disease due to anthropogenic ozone and fine particulate matter using atmospheric modeling. http://emisia.com/products/sibyl, (accessed 13 January 2017) (Emisia, 2016), Carslaw, D. C. & Rhys-Tyler, G. New insights from comprehensive on-road measurements of NOx, NO2 and NH3 from vehicle emission remote sensing in London, UK. The weighted average EGR rate is 63%.
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