A positive value for \(H_{soln}\) does not mean that a solution will not form. For solutions of gases in liquids, we can safely ignore the energy required to separate the solute molecules (\(H_2 = 0\)) because the molecules are already separated. Multimodal chromatography: an efficient tool in downstream processing of proteins, Click here to see all available distributors. However, the bond to hydrogen will still be polarized and possess a dipole. thesaurus. Because the \(S_8\) rings in solid sulfur are held to other rings by London dispersion forces, elemental sulfur is insoluble in water. For hydrocarbons and other non-polar molecules which lack strong dipoles, these dispersion forces are really the only attractive forces between molecules. Even the noble gases, whose atoms do not form chemical bonds with each other, can be condensed to liquids at sufficiently low temperatures. Think about an atom like argon. The forces of attraction or repulsion existing among the particles of atoms or molecules of a solid, liquid, or gaseous substance other than the electrostatic force that exists among the positively charged ions and forces that hold atoms of a molecule together, i.e., covalent bonds are called intermolecular forces. to one another, the stronger the intermolecular These hydrocarbons are therefore powerful solvents for a wide range of polar and nonpolar compounds. present in the liquid state must be overcome. Virtually all common organic liquids, whether polar or not, are miscible. London dispersion forces are weak intermolecular forces and are considered van der Waals forces. In contrast, water-soluble vitamins, such as vitamin C, are polar, hydrophilic molecules that circulate in the blood and intracellular fluids, which are primarily aqueous. A phase change affinity (immunology) the attraction between an antigen and an antibody bond , chemical bond an electrical force linking atoms . 13.3: Intermolecular Forces and the Solution Process is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts. Water droplets on a leaf: The hydrogen bonds formed between water molecules in water droplets are stronger than the other intermolecular forces between the water molecules and the leaf, contributing to high surface tension and distinct water droplets. They are certainly much stronger than any conceivable combination of intermolecular interactions that might occur in solution. It results from the attractive force between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a very electronegative atom such as a N, O, or F atom and another very electronegative atom. The forces can be classified into attractive and repulsive forces. Ionic forces are interactions between charged atoms or molecules (ions). As it turns out, love is all about the brain - which, in turn, makes the rest of your body go haywire. Solutes can be classified as hydrophilic (water loving) or hydrophobic (water fearing). Include at least one specific example where each attractive force is important. Enthalpy is only one of the contributing factors. a) That is, polarity is always relative to the electronegativity difference between TWO atoms, and it not related to any one atom. Solved 8. a) Predict which has the higher boiling point: F2 - Chegg The attractive forces between oppositely charged ions is described by Coulombs Law, in which the force increases with charge and decreases as the distance between these ions is increased. See Answer. nouns. this phase change, does the distance between molecules increase or Dipole -dipole interactions occur when the partial charges formed within one molecule are attracted to an opposite partial charge in a nearby molecule. Owing to rapid molecular motion in solution, these bonds are transient (short-lived) but have significant bond strengths ranging from (9 kJ/mol (2 kcal/mol) (for NH) to about 30 kJ/mol (7 kcal) and higher for HF. When shaken with water, they form separate phases or layers separated by an interface (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)), the region between the two layers. Many metals dissolve in liquid mercury to form amalgams. The heat is providing enough The London Dispersion Force - This is a temporary attractive force that is caused when electrons in two adjacent atoms are displaced in such a way that the atoms form temporary dipoles. The strong nuclear force is a very strong, attractive short-range (10-15 m) force that binds the protons and neutrons in the nuclei of atoms together. The London dispersion forces, dipoledipole interactions, and hydrogen bonds that hold molecules to other molecules are generally weak. Answer: Caffeine and acetaminophen are water soluble and rapidly excreted, whereas vitamin D is fat soluble and slowly excreted. It is a relatively weak force and has a significant effect only when the relevant molecules are in close proximity or touching one another. . Planning Organic Synthesis With "Reaction Maps", The 8 Types of Arrows In Organic Chemistry, Explained, The Most Annoying Exceptions in Org 1 (Part 1), The Most Annoying Exceptions in Org 1 (Part 2), Screw Organic Chemistry, I'm Just Going To Write About Cats, On Cats, Part 1: Conformations and Configurations, The Marriage May Be Bad, But the Divorce Still Costs Money. How are the following substances ranked, from weakest intermolecular force, to the strongest attractions. Dispersion (London forces): attractive forces that arise between temporary dipoles and induced dipoles in atoms or molecules; e.g., I2 bonded to I2 to form liquid or solid iodine. My guess is because the Boiling Point depends on the Intermolecular Forces (IMF). Because helium contains two electrons which are both in the 1S orbital making them EXTREMELY close to the nucleus. Hydrogen bond donor and hydrogen bond acceptor: Ethanol contains a hydrogen atom that is a hydrogen bond donor because it is bonded to an electronegative oxygen atom, which is very electronegative, so the hydrogen atom is slightly positive. It should be fat soluble and not required daily. The dipole of one molecule can align with the dipole from another molecule, leading to an attractive interaction that we call hydrogen bonding. Doubling the distance ( r 2 r) decreases the attractive energy by one-half. Dipole-Dipole 2.Dipole-Induced Dipole 3. All About Solvents, Common Blind Spot: Intramolecular Reactions, The Conjugate Base is Always a Stronger Nucleophile, Elimination Reactions (1): Introduction And The Key Pattern, Elimination Reactions (2): The Zaitsev Rule, Elimination Reactions Are Favored By Heat, E1 vs E2: Comparing the E1 and E2 Reactions, Antiperiplanar Relationships: The E2 Reaction and Cyclohexane Rings, Elimination (E1) Reactions With Rearrangements, E1cB - Elimination (Unimolecular) Conjugate Base, Elimination (E1) Practice Problems And Solutions, Elimination (E2) Practice Problems and Solutions, Rearrangement Reactions (1) - Hydride Shifts, Carbocation Rearrangement Reactions (2) - Alkyl Shifts, The SN1, E1, and Alkene Addition Reactions All Pass Through A Carbocation Intermediate, Identifying Where Substitution and Elimination Reactions Happen, Deciding SN1/SN2/E1/E2 (1) - The Substrate, Deciding SN1/SN2/E1/E2 (2) - The Nucleophile/Base, Deciding SN1/SN2/E1/E2 (4) - The Temperature, Wrapup: The Quick N' Dirty Guide To SN1/SN2/E1/E2, E and Z Notation For Alkenes (+ Cis/Trans), Addition Reactions: Elimination's Opposite, Regioselectivity In Alkene Addition Reactions, Stereoselectivity In Alkene Addition Reactions: Syn vs Anti Addition, Alkene Hydrohalogenation Mechanism And How It Explains Markovnikov's Rule, Arrow Pushing and Alkene Addition Reactions, Addition Pattern #1: The "Carbocation Pathway", Rearrangements in Alkene Addition Reactions, Alkene Addition Pattern #2: The "Three-Membered Ring" Pathway, Alkene Addition Pattern #3: The "Concerted" Pathway, Bromonium Ion Formation: A (Minor) Arrow-Pushing Dilemma, A Fourth Alkene Addition Pattern - Free Radical Addition, Summary: Three Key Families Of Alkene Reaction Mechanisms, Palladium on Carbon (Pd/C) for Catalytic Hydrogenation, OsO4 (Osmium Tetroxide) for Dihydroxylation of Alkenes, Synthesis (4) - Alkene Reaction Map, Including Alkyl Halide Reactions, Acetylides from Alkynes, And Substitution Reactions of Acetylides, Partial Reduction of Alkynes With Lindlar's Catalyst or Na/NH3 To Obtain Cis or Trans Alkenes, Hydroboration and Oxymercuration of Alkynes, Alkyne Reaction Patterns - Hydrohalogenation - Carbocation Pathway, Alkyne Halogenation: Bromination, Chlorination, and Iodination of Alkynes, Alkyne Reactions - The "Concerted" Pathway, Alkenes To Alkynes Via Halogenation And Elimination Reactions, Alkyne Reactions Practice Problems With Answers, Alcohols Can Act As Acids Or Bases (And Why It Matters), Ethers From Alkenes, Tertiary Alkyl Halides and Alkoxymercuration, Epoxides - The Outlier Of The Ether Family, Elimination of Alcohols To Alkenes With POCl3, Alcohol Oxidation: "Strong" and "Weak" Oxidants, Demystifying The Mechanisms of Alcohol Oxidations, Intramolecular Reactions of Alcohols and Ethers, Calculating the oxidation state of a carbon, Oxidation and Reduction in Organic Chemistry, SOCl2 Mechanism For Alcohols To Alkyl Halides: SN2 versus SNi, Formation of Grignard and Organolithium Reagents, Synthesis Problems Involving Grignard Reagents, Organocuprates (Gilman Reagents): How They're Made, Gilman Reagents (Organocuprates): What They're Used For, The Heck, Suzuki, and Olefin Metathesis Reactions (And Why They Don't Belong In Most Introductory Organic Chemistry Courses), Reaction Map: Reactions of Organometallics, Degrees of Unsaturation (or IHD, Index of Hydrogen Deficiency), Conjugation And Color (+ How Bleach Works), UV-Vis Spectroscopy: Absorbance of Carbonyls, Bond Vibrations, Infrared Spectroscopy, and the "Ball and Spring" Model, Infrared Spectroscopy: A Quick Primer On Interpreting Spectra, Diastereotopic Protons in 1H NMR Spectroscopy: Examples, Natural Product Isolation (1) - Extraction, Natural Product Isolation (2) - Purification Techniques, An Overview, Structure Determination Case Study: Deer Tarsal Gland Pheromone, Conjugation And Resonance In Organic Chemistry, Molecular Orbitals of The Allyl Cation, Allyl Radical, and Allyl Anion, Reactions of Dienes: 1,2 and 1,4 Addition, Cyclic Dienes and Dienophiles in the Diels-Alder Reaction, Stereochemistry of the Diels-Alder Reaction, Exo vs Endo Products In The Diels Alder: How To Tell Them Apart, HOMO and LUMO In the Diels Alder Reaction. Hydrogen bonds are responsible for holding together DNA, proteins, and other macromolecules. It all flows from this general principle: as bonds become more polarized, the charges on the atoms become greater, which leads to greater intermolecular attractions, which leads to higher boiling points. Compounds that contain NH4+ have ionic bonds, and thus should have higher boiling points than compounds without ionic bonds, like CH3OH. Why does N2 have a lower boiling point than CO although they are isoelectronic? Energy is required to overcome the intermolecular interactions in a solute, which can be supplied only by the new interactions that occur in the solution, when each solute particle is surrounded by particles of the solvent in a process called solvation, or hydration when the solvent is water. However, when hydrogen bonds with elements that are extremely electronegative (primarily F, O, and N) they hold on VERY tightly and the hydrogen bonding that occurs during them is extremely significant. Fused Rings - Cis-Decalin and Trans-Decalin, Naming Bicyclic Compounds - Fused, Bridged, and Spiro, Bredt's Rule (And Summary of Cycloalkanes), The Most Important Question To Ask When Learning a New Reaction, The 4 Major Classes of Reactions in Org 1. Aldehydes and Ketones: 14 Reactions With The Same Mechanism, Sodium Borohydride (NaBH4) Reduction of Aldehydes and Ketones, Grignard Reagents For Addition To Aldehydes and Ketones, Imines - Properties, Formation, Reactions, and Mechanisms, Breaking Down Carbonyl Reaction Mechanisms: Reactions of Anionic Nucleophiles (Part2), Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution (With Negatively Charged Nucleophiles), Addition-Elimination Mechanisms With Neutral Nucleophiles (Including Acid Catalysis), Basic Hydrolysis of Esters - Saponification, Fischer Esterification - Carboxylic Acid to Ester Under Acidic Conditions, Lithium Aluminum Hydride (LiAlH4) For Reduction of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives, LiAlH[Ot-Bu]3 For The Reduction of Acid Halides To Aldehydes, Di-isobutyl Aluminum Hydride (DIBAL) For The Partial Reduction of Esters and Nitriles, Carbonyl Chemistry: Learn Six Mechanisms For the Price Of One, Carboxylic Acid Derivatives Practice Questions, Enolates - Formation, Stability, and Simple Reactions, Aldol Addition and Condensation Reactions, Reactions of Enols - Acid-Catalyzed Aldol, Halogenation, and Mannich Reactions, Claisen Condensation and Dieckmann Condensation, The Malonic Ester and Acetoacetic Ester Synthesis, The Michael Addition Reaction and Conjugate Addition, The Amide Functional Group: Properties, Synthesis, and Nomenclature, Protecting Groups for Amines - Carbamates, Reactions of Diazonium Salts: Sandmeyer and Related Reactions, Pyranoses and Furanoses: Ring-Chain Tautomerism In Sugars, The Big Damn Post Of Carbohydrate-Related Chemistry Definitions, Converting a Fischer Projection To A Haworth (And Vice Versa), Reactions of Sugars: Glycosylation and Protection, The Ruff Degradation and Kiliani-Fischer Synthesis, Isoelectric Points of Amino Acids (and How To Calculate Them), A Gallery of Some Interesting Molecules From Nature. More hydrogen bonds means stronger IM force. (In fact, pantothenic acid is almost always a component of multiple-vitamin tablets.). Because MeOH has the OH functional group, which can participate in hydrogen bonding. The Third Most Important Question to Ask When Learning A New Reaction, 7 Factors that stabilize negative charge in organic chemistry, 7 Factors That Stabilize Positive Charge in Organic Chemistry, Common Mistakes: Formal Charges Can Mislead, Curved Arrows (2): Initial Tails and Final Heads, Learning Organic Chemistry Reactions: A Checklist (PDF), Introduction to Free Radical Substitution Reactions, Introduction to Oxidative Cleavage Reactions, Bond Dissociation Energies = Homolytic Cleavage. Thus we need to consider only the energy required to separate the solvent molecules (\(H_1\)) and the energy released by new solutesolvent interactions (\(H_3\)). How many zinc transporter families are there? 7.3: Ionic Bond Formation and Strength - Chemistry LibreTexts As the molecular mass of the alcohol increases, so does the proportion of hydrocarbon in the molecule. a. NaF b. CH3CH2CH3 Solved 7.1-Enhanced- with Feedback the sharing of electrons - Chegg Acetone and 2-Octanone Glucose and Hexane Dichloromethane and Sodium Chloride 4. Solids with very strong intermolecular bonding tend to be insoluble. However, as molecular weight increases, boiling point also goes up. Other groups beside hydrogen can be involved in polar covalent bonding with strongly electronegative atoms. of intermolecular forces present in the solid state. Van der Waals Dispersion Forces (London forces), Valence Electrons of the First Row Elements, How Concepts Build Up In Org 1 ("The Pyramid"). The bound state implies a net attractive force between the atoms . Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. The same principles govern the solubilities of molecular solids in liquids. Polarizability increases with atomic size. Stronger intermolecular Intramolecular and intermolecular forces (article) | Khan Academy Step 3 involves establishing intermolecular attractive forces between solute and solvent molecules (solvation), and is thus exothermic. DLVO Theory - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics Hydrophobic Interaction: Hydrophobic, non-polar group's; like leucine, valine and phenyl-alanine side chain have a tendency to associate in an aqueous environment. Because all these solvents consist of molecules that have relatively large dipole moments, they can interact favorably with the dissolved ions. forces increase or decrease. Arginine is a highly polar molecule with two positively charged groups and one negatively charged group, all of which can form hydrogen bonds with water. These intermolecular forces occur between nonpolar substances and cause them to condense to liquids and freeze to solids when the temperature is sufficiently lowered. In essence, a solvent with a high dielectric constant causes the charged particles to behave as if they have been moved farther apart. The There are four major classes of interactions between molecules and they are all different manifestations of opposite charges attract. Variations in the ionic strength of the suspension controls the range of the double layer interaction, while the van der Waals forces are insensitive to the ionic strength. On average, theyre evenly dispersed. The polarizability is the term we use to describe how readily atoms can form these instantaneous dipoles. Chemistry Test 3 Flashcards | Quizlet For example, organic liquids such as benzene, hexane, \(CCl_4\), and \(CS_2\) (S=C=S) are nonpolar and have no ability to act as hydrogen bond donors or acceptors with hydrogen-bonding solvents such as \(H_2O\), \(HF\), and \(NH_3\); hence they are immiscible in these solvents. Noun. Individually, each interaction isnt worth much, but if collectively, these forces can be extremely significant. The Main Types of Chemical Bonds - ThoughtCo This behavior is in contrast to that of molecular substances, for which polarity is the dominant factor governing solubility. The strength of the ion-dipole force is proportionate to ion charge. These intermolecular forces allow molecules to pack together in the solid and liquid states. The iondipole interactions between Li+ ions and acetone molecules in a solution of LiCl in acetone are shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\). why does the boiling point of helium lower than the boiling point of hydrogen? secondary, Protein Structure Bonding &Intermolecular Forces primary secondary tertiary quaternary 9) What type of attraction would you expect between the R groups of each of the following amino acids in a tertiary structure of a The solubility of ionic compounds is largely determined by the dielectric constant () of the solvent, a measure of its ability to decrease the electrostatic forces between charged particles. Hydrogen Bonding Force This is a special class of dipole-dipole attraction between molecules that results in the formation of Hydrogen bonds. In fact, the opposite is true: 83 g of LiCl dissolve in 100 mL of water at 20C, but only about 4.1 g of LiCl dissolve in 100 mL of acetone. required to overcome stronger intermolecular Dispersion forces may be repulsive or attractive. So on average these forces tend to be weaker than in hydrogen bonding. The process occurs in three discrete steps, indicated by \(H_1\), \(H_2\), and \(H_3\) in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\). The four key intermolecular forces are as follows: Ionic bonds > Hydrogen bonding > Van der Waals dipole-dipole interactions > Van der Waals dispersion forces. Interactive: Comparing Attractive Forces: Explore different attractive forces between various molecules. Because the dipole moment of acetone (2.88 D), and thus its polarity, is actually larger than that of water (1.85 D), one might even expect that LiCl would be more soluble in acetone than in water. Many ionic compounds are soluble in other polar solvents, however, such as liquid ammonia, liquid hydrogen fluoride, and methanol. Teacher Notes: Chemical Bonds and Forces - PEP - Sites@Duke London Forces Ionic substances are generally most soluble in polar solvents; the higher the lattice energy, the more polar the solvent must be to overcome the lattice energy and dissolve the substance. In contrast, a partial alloy solution has two or more phases that can be homogeneous in the distribution of the components, but the microstructures of the two phases are not the same. But at any given instant, there might be a mismatch between how many electrons are on one side and how many are on the other, which can lead to an instantaneous difference in charge. Polar Aprotic? Temporary dipoles can induce a dipole in neighboring molecules, initiating an attraction called a London dispersion force. Chemical Bonds - HyperPhysics Solutions are not limited to gases and liquids; solid solutions also exist. Boiling point increases with molecular weight, and with surface area. Because of its high polarity, water is the most common solvent for ionic compounds. However, ion-dipole forces involve ions instead of solely polar molecules. 5.2c). (See Article , Branching, and Its Affect On Melting and Boiling Points, A Key Skill: How to Calculate Formal Charge, Hidden Hydrogens, Hidden Lone Pairs, Hidden Counterions. It is therefore likely to be water soluble and required in the diet. Required fields are marked *. Consequently, solids that have very high lattice energies, such as \(\ce{MgO}\) (3791 kJ/mol), are generally insoluble in all solvents. Also tell me alcohols, esters, ethers and aromatic hydrocarbons have any relation between boiling point, dispersion, surface tension or wettability (this is specifically for liquid inks). Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons between atoms within the same molecule. Its an inert gas, right? chapter 7 chem Flashcards | Quizlet Naphthalene, which is nonpolar, and phenol (\(C_6H_5OH\)), which is polar, are very soluble in chloroform. Love, Actually: The science behind lust, attraction, and companionship One way to accomplish this is to agitate a suspension of the crushed rock with liquid mercury, which dissolves the gold (as well as any metallic silver that might be present). Synonyms for Attractive Force (other words and phrases for Attractive Force). The attractive van der Waals and the repulsive electrostatic potentials form the total interaction energy. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) - The University of Warwick Ion-Dipole Force An ion-dipole force occurs between a partially charged dipole and a fully charged ion. Thank you for the boiling point help, Thank you thank you thank you! Force (F) 1/d 7 . forces. All molecular and intermolecular attractive forces are electrostatic in nature. Oleic acid is a hydrophobic molecule with a single polar group at one end. Good! The London dispersion force is the weakest of all intermolecular forces. Only the three lightest alcohols (methanol, ethanol, and n-propanol) are completely miscible with water. respectively. Correspondingly, the importance of hydrogen bonding and dipoledipole interactions in the pure alcohol decreases, while the importance of London dispersion forces increases, which leads to progressively fewer favorable electrostatic interactions with water. Pentanoic acid strongest. The solubility of a substance in a liquid is determined by intermolecular interactions, which also determine whether two liquids are miscible. When a solvent is added to a solution, steps 1 and 2 are both endothermic because energy is required to overcome the intermolecular interactions in the solvent (\(\Delta H_1\)) and the solute (\(\Delta H_2\)). affinity - (immunology) the attraction between an antigen and an antibody. In this case, \(H_1\) and \(H_3\) are both small and of similar magnitude. Whether a given process, including formation of a solution, occurs spontaneously depends on whether the total energy of the system is lowered as a result. Learning New Reactions: How Do The Electrons Move? PDF The Four Fundamental Forces - Stockton Unified School District Aniline is a polar molecule with an \(\ce{NH_2}\) group, which can act as a hydrogen bond donor. Hence water is better able to decrease the electrostatic attraction between Li+ and Cl ions, so LiCl is more soluble in water than in acetone. Because \(H\) is positive for both steps 1 and 2, the solutesolvent interactions (\(\Delta H_3\)) must be stronger than the solutesolute and solventsolvent interactions they replace in order for the dissolution process to be exothermic (\(\Delta H_{soln} < 0\)). All phase changes involve either an increase or decrease of intermolecular forces. Intermolecular Forces: The attractive forces between separate particles of a substance are called intermolecular forces. b) bonds with an electronegativity DIFFERENCE greater than 0 (that is, any bond that is not between two identical atoms, which is considered to be a pure covalent bond) is technically a polar bond, but the convention is that the difference should be greater than 0.5 to be considered realistically polar. Dipole-dipole attraction between water molecules: The negatively charged oxygen atom of one molecule attracts the positively charged hydrogen of another molecule. aniline (\(C_6H_5NH_2\)) in dichloromethane (\(CH_2Cl_2\)). When water comes in . Thus all of the solutesolute interactions and many of the solventsolvent interactions must be disrupted for a solution to form. The polarizability is the term we use to describe how readily atoms can form these instantaneous dipoles. (We call these intermolecular forces forcesbetweenmolecules, as opposed to intramolecular forces forces within a molecule. 1) Electronegativity is a measurement of how strongly an atom wishes to hold onto its valence electrons. between the water molecules are decreasing. These represent the attraction between instantaneous dipoles in a molecule. Just because two liquids are immiscible, however, does not mean that they are completely insoluble in each other. Many metals react with solutions such as aqueous acids or bases to produce a solution. Why does CH3OH have lower boiling point that NH4? Ion-dipole forces are stronger than dipole . Solved <Chapter 7 Problem 7.17 - Enhanced - with Feedback 12 - Chegg 2) Polarity is a term that reflects how DIFFERENT the electronegativities are of two bonded atoms. Depends on the atmospheric pressure. Why Do Organic Chemists Use Kilocalories? what about ion-dipole interactions? It is one of the main types of bonding, along with covalent bonding and metallic bonding. Some Practice Problems, Antiaromatic Compounds and Antiaromaticity, The Pi Molecular Orbitals of Cyclobutadiene, Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution: Introduction, Activating and Deactivating Groups In Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution, Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution - The Mechanism, Ortho-, Para- and Meta- Directors in Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution, Understanding Ortho, Para, and Meta Directors, Disubstituted Benzenes: The Strongest Electron-Donor "Wins", Electrophilic Aromatic Substitutions (1) - Halogenation of Benzene, Electrophilic Aromatic Substitutions (2) - Nitration and Sulfonation, EAS Reactions (3) - Friedel-Crafts Acylation and Friedel-Crafts Alkylation, Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitution (2) - The Benzyne Mechanism, Reactions on the "Benzylic" Carbon: Bromination And Oxidation, The Wolff-Kishner, Clemmensen, And Other Carbonyl Reductions, More Reactions on the Aromatic Sidechain: Reduction of Nitro Groups and the Baeyer Villiger, Aromatic Synthesis (1) - "Order Of Operations", Synthesis of Benzene Derivatives (2) - Polarity Reversal, Aromatic Synthesis (3) - Sulfonyl Blocking Groups, Synthesis (7): Reaction Map of Benzene and Related Aromatic Compounds, Aromatic Reactions and Synthesis Practice, Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution Practice Problems.
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